Semiotics

Semiotics is the study of signs. It examines how symbolic, written and technical signs construct meaning, as well as looking at how meaning is made and understood. There are many theorists that are involved in the different branches of semiotics, Ferdinand de Saussure being the key figure in the coining of the term. Theorists such as Charles Sanders Pierce, Roland Barthes and more recently, Stuart Hall and Daniel Chandler have also had a large impact on the study of signs. This blog post will discuss the different theories/ideologies posed by the theorists listed above.

It is important to remember that signs are polysemic, meaning that they have various different interpretations and meanings.

'The shortest definition is that [semiotics] is the study of signs. But that doesn't leave enquirers much wiser. 'What do you mean by a sign?' people usually ask next. The kinds of signs that are likely to spring immediately to mind are those which we routinely refer to as 'signs' in everyday life, such as road signs, pub signs and star signs. If you were to agree with them that semiotics can include the study of all these and more, people will probably assume that semiotics is about 'visual signs‘' (Chandler, 2002)

Saussure proposes a dyadic model of the sign, he defines a sign as being made up of the signifier and the signified. The signifier is a sign, a word, a colour or image, like the word 'tree'. Whereas the signified is the concept or meaning, or the associations that the signs refer to. Saussure explains how the sign is arbitrary, there is no natural reason why a signifier is linked to the signified, for example, there is no real reason why we decided to call a 'tree' a 'tree'. He also emphasises how the sign is relational and differential. It is relational because it only makes sense in relation to other signs in the same or a similar system and it is differential because it defines things by what they are not rather than by what they are. 

Fig 1. Saussurean Model  (Chandler, Aberystwyth University, 2014)

Charles Sanders Pierce, on the other hand, believed signs to be our only method of thinking and that signs function as mediators between the external world of objects and the internal world or ideas (Scott, 2014). Signs can take the form of images, objects, words, acts etc. but in fact, lack intrinsic meaning and become signs only when meaning is given to them by us. He explains that nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as one and hence signifies something. (Peirce, 1931-58) He also stated that there were three different kinds of signs; 

• Symbol/symbolic: This is purely conventional, the relationship must be learnt. 
• Icon/iconic: The relationship of resemblance, something that physically resembles what it stands for (A picture, or portrait) 
• Index/indexical: The relationship of causality (for example, smoke from a fire or dark clouds as a warning for rain)

All media texts have two layers of meaning to them. You have the denotative level, which is what we actually see, the surface meaning. And you have the connotative level, which is what you associate with it, the deeper or hidden meanings that go alongside it.

Roland Barthes semiotic theory focuses on how signs represent different cultures and ideologies in different ways. His theory follows the ideas of denotations and connotations, these being the terms used to describe the relationship between the signifier and the signified. Barthes also uses the word 'myth' in relation to connotation; he uses the word to explain the hegemonic ideologies of the time. Barthes proposed that a myth is a chain of semiotic events which when experienced or seen by members of society creates a subconscious meaning.

Stuart Hall, who is most widely known for his work on the encoding/decoding model believes that the denotation and connotation process is an analytical tool. He argued that for those decoding readings there can be a number of unlimited readings and that the decoding process is 'polysemic‘. Hall also argues that it is extremely rare for signs to signify their literal meaning in the world and that most of the signs will combine both the denotative and connotative process and work hand in hand together to create meaning.

Lastly, and most recently, is Daniel Chandler. Chandler's particular interest lies in the visual semiotics of gender and advertising and has commented on the works of those listed above (and more) in his online version of Semiotics for Beginners for Aberystwyth University and in his book Semiotics: The Basics.

There is no simple way to define semiotics, as 'other than as 'the study of signs' there is relatively little agreement amongst semioticians themselves as to the scope and methodology of semiotics'. (Chandler, 2014) 

In reality, it is a loosely defined concept and practice.

Bibliography and Websites Accessed

• Chandler, D. (2001). Semiotics: The Basics. 1st ed. London: Routledge, p.1.
• Chandler, D. Aberystwyth University, (2014). Semiotics for Beginners. [image] Available at: http://visual-memory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/S4B/sem02.html [Accessed 5 Mar. 2017]
• Peirce, Charles Sanders (1931-58): Collected Writings (8 Vols.). (Ed. Charles Hartshorne, Paul Weiss & Arthur W Burks). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Scott, A. (2014). Charles S. Peirce’s Theory of Signs. [online] Charles S. Peirce’s Theory of Signs. Available at: http://www.angelfire.com/md2/timewarp/peirce.html [Accessed 4 Mar. 2017].
• Saussure, Ferdinand de (1974): Course in General Linguistics (trans. Wade Baskin). London: Fontana/Collins.
• Saussure, Ferdinand de ([1916] 1983): Course in General Linguistics (trans. Roy Harris). London: Duckworth. Silverman, Kaja (1983)